The voice inside your head and self: a systematic review of relationships between self-directed speech and self-processes

Abstract

Self-talk plays a central role in a variety of self-related processes such as reflection, evaluation, and regulation. Self-talk is a well-established aspect of human cognition, though its relationships with broader self-processes such as self-consciousness, rumination, mindfulness, self-concept clarity, and self-esteem remain fragmented. The present study aimed to synthesize existing empirical findings to clarify how individual differences in self-talk relate to self-processes. Guided by PRISMA-informed systematic review procedures, this narrative review examined studies published between 2000 and 2025 that reported correlations between validated self-talk self-report measures and self-process self-report measures. Eligible studies included both published and unpublished works and were grouped according to the specific self-talk subtypes and the self-process constructs examined. Relationships across studies showed a consistent pattern suggesting that the function and tone of self-talk were more predictive of outcomes than its overall frequency. Evaluative and critical forms of self-talk were more strongly associated with maladaptive self-processes such as higher rumination, lower self-esteem, reduced self-concept clarity, and lower mindful acceptance. In contrast, positive or reinforcing self-talk was generally, though less robustly, linked to more adaptive outcomes. Notably, mindful acceptance appeared to mitigate the negative impacts of harmful self-talk when compared to mindful awareness alone. These findings support theoretical models that place self-talk as a central mechanism of self-construction and self-processing. Clinically, the results highlight the importance of targeting evaluative and critical self-talk using cognitive-behavioural models, fostering acceptance-based approaches in therapeutic interventions, and tailoring interventions to the client’s level of self-talk. Future research should focus on longitudinal and experimental designs, greater conceptual consistency, and broader cultural representation.